coli to infect and colonize the mammalian host

coli to infect and colonize the mammalian host. this website We are gratefully indebted to Juan Anguita, Associate Professor at Amherst Veterinary and Animal Sciences, for suggested improvements to the manuscript. N.N. was a recipient of fellowships from the University of Leon. This work was supported by grants from the Direccion General de Investigación (AGL2007-62428) and Junta de Castilla y León (JCyL 32A08). “
“The type IV secretion system (T4SS) contributes to Brucella intracellular survival through its effector proteins. Comparative proteomic analysis showed that intracellular survival proteins are expressed

differentially in a virB mutant. Interestingly, several outer membrane proteins (OMPs) are also differentially expressed, implying that T4SS might Navitoclax price affect the OM properties of Brucella. To further evaluate the impact of T4SS on OM, in the present study, the OM proteomes were isolated and compared. Many more products of OMPs, particularly different products of the Omp25/Omp31 family, were found to be altered in the virB mutant. The transcription profiles of Omp25/Omp31 were different from those of their protein products, implying their regulation by virB at both transcriptional and post-transcriptional levels. The virB mutant aggregates at a high cell density and produces exopolysaccharide,

a phenotype resembling that of the vjbR mutant. The virB mutant showed increased sensitivity to polymyxin B and decreased survival under oxidative, high-salt and high-osmolarity stresses, indicating drastic membrane alterations. These results indicated that in addition to being an effector protein secretion system, T4SS affects OM properties that might be important for the adaptation of Brucella to both Carnitine dehydrogenase in vitro and in vivo hostile environments. Brucellosis, also called Malta fever, is a zoonotic disease caused by members of the genus Brucella. Brucella

are remarkably well adapted to the intracellular lifestyle, being able to survive and replicate inside host cells by creating a membrane-bound compartment (Pizarro-Cerda et al., 1998; Ficht, 2003). This is one of the bases for the still poorly understood chronicity of Brucellosis. In an attempt to unravel Brucella virulence factors by transposon mutagenesis, a type IV secretion system (T4SS) encoded by the virB operon was identified (O’Callaghan et al., 1999). The Brucella virB mutants lost the ability to affect the endosomal pathway to dock with the endoplasmic reticulum (ER) and were unable to survive within macrophages and mice (Sieira et al., 2000; Watarai et al., 2002). As a secretion system, T4SS may contribute to Brucella intracellular survival through its effector proteins. A recent report showed that two proteins, VceC and VceA, were translocated into host cells by T4SS.

Evidence from observational studies, unsystematic clinical experi

Evidence from observational studies, unsystematic clinical experience, or from randomized, controlled trials with serious flaws. Any estimate of effect is uncertain. Strong recommendation, and applies to most patients. Some of the evidence base supporting the recommendation is, however, of low quality. 1D Strong recommendation.

Very low-quality evidence. Benefits appear to outweigh risk and burdens, or vice versa. Evidence limited to case studies. Strong recommendation based mainly on case studies and expert judgement. 2A Weak recommendation. High-quality evidence. Benefits closely balanced with risks and burdens. Consistent Ipilimumab cost evidence from well-performed randomized, controlled trials or overwhelming evidence of some other form. Further research is unlikely to change our confidence in the estimate of benefit and risk. Weak recommendation, Trichostatin A best action may differ depending on circumstances or patients or societal values. 2B Weak recommendation. Moderate-quality evidence. Benefits closely balanced with risks and burdens, some uncertainly in the estimates of benefits, risks and burdens. Evidence from randomized, controlled trials with important limitations (inconsistent results, methods flaws,

indirect or imprecise). Further research may change the estimate of benefit and risk. Weak recommendation, alternative approaches likely to be better for some patients under some circumstances. 2C Weak recommendation. Low-quality evidence. Uncertainty in the estimates of benefits, risks and burdens; benefits may be closely balanced with risks and burdens. Evidence from observational studies, unsystematic clinical experience, or from randomized, controlled trials Ribonuclease T1 with serious flaws. Any estimate of effect

is uncertain. Weak recommendation; other alternatives may be reasonable. 2D Weak recommendation. Very low-quality evidence. Uncertainty in the estimates of benefits, risks, and burdens; benefits may be closely balanced with risks and burdens. Evidence limited to case studies and expert judgment. Very weak recommendation; other alternatives may be equally reasonable. Databases: Medline, Embase, Cochrane Library Conference abstracts: IAS Conference on HIV Pathogenesis and Treatment. International AIDS Conference. Conference on Retroviruses and Opportunistic Infections. European Conference on Clinical Aspects and Treatment of HIV Infection. International Congress on Drug Therapy in HIV Infection. British HIV Association Annual Conference. Children’s HIV Association conference (CHIVA). International Workshop on HIV Paediatrics. International Conference on Antimicrobial Agents and Infectious Disease (ICAAC). American Association for the Study of Liver Disease (AASLD). European Association for the Study of the Liver (EASL). Date parameters: Databases: July 2011. Conference abstracts: 2008–July 2011.

The sublethal concentration of zoocin A determined for each strai

The sublethal concentration of zoocin A determined for each strain is given in Table 1. The growth assay proved simple and highly reproducible. Although somewhat arbitrary, setting the lag phase cut off point at initial OD+0.1 yielded highly reproducible experimental data. Determining the growth rate constant did not allow us to reliably distinguish treated from untreated cultures. Once treated cultures reached log phase, they grew as fast as untreated cultures, suggesting that once the cells have repaired their peptidoglycan and degraded any remaining intracellular PS-ODN, there were no remaining constraints to cellular growth. The addition of 0.1 μg mL−1

Stem Cell Compound Library zoocin A and 10 μM of either FABM or FBA to S. Osimertinib in vivo mutans OMZ175 resulted in a lag phase that was significantly longer (P=0.001) than that observed for the addition of zoocin A alone (Fig. 1). The effect of zoocin A and FABM on S. mutans OMZ175 growth was dose dependent. In the absence of zoocin A, FABM (1–20 μM) had no significant

effect on S. mutans OMZ175 growth (Table 2). When combined with 0.1 μg mL−1 zoocin A, the lag phase increased proportionally (R2=0.9928) with increasing FABM concentration. Similarly, using a fixed concentration of FABM (10 μM), the increase in lag phase was proportional to the zoocin A concentration (Table 2) both in the presence (R2=0.9919) and in the absence (R2=0.9069) of the PS-ODN. Growth inhibition was target specific. Only S. mutans strains were severely inhibited in the presence of FABM, whereas all streptococcal strains except S. oralis were severely inhibited by FBA (Table 3). Streptococcus

oralis 34 does contain the FBA target sequence within its genome but is not sensitive to zoocin A. Compared with growth in the presence of zoocin A, there were large increases in the lag phase (between 25% and >134%) for all S. mutans strains Vorinostat mouse grown in the presence of zoocin A plus FABM. With the exception of S. oralis 34, compared with growth in the presence of zoocin A, there were large increases in the lag phase (between 30% and >134%) for all streptococcal strains grown in the presence of zoocin A plus FBA. Streptococcus sobrinus 6715 and S. sanguinis K11 showed no response to either FABM or FBA used at concentrations of 10 μM, but both showed significant (P=0.001) increases in lag phase in the presence of zoocin A plus 50 μM FBA. There were some strains that showed a small (<11%) but statistically significant increase in lag phase when incubated with the ATS control, suggesting a degree of nonspecific toxicity by these constructs. As a consequence of their high GC content, negative charge and or sulphur group, PS-ODN have been reported to interact with cellular proteins Brown et al., 1994), resulting in nonspecific toxicity (Chrisey et al., 1995; Stein, 1996).

We found that the skc gene was harboured by 653% of the strains

We found that the skc gene was harboured by 65.3% of the strains. To our knowledge, only one study has investigated the skc

gene in S. uberis (Johnsen et al., 1999); nine of 10 investigated strains contained skc genes with similar structures and properties. Evidence of pauB was not found in S. uberis herein. Only one report describes the presence of the pauB gene in one S. uberis strain isolated from a clinical case of bovine mastitis (Ward & Leigh, 2002). Our results showed that 61.5% AZD4547 molecular weight of the strains harboured the pauA gene. In contrast, Ward & Leigh (2004) reported a very high prevalence of pauA alleles in field isolates collected from various European locations, which supported the check details observation that plasminogen activators are likely to confer an advantage with respect to colonization and growth. However, Ward et al. (2003) reported that expression of PauA is not essential for infection of the mammary gland, as indicated by the isolation of pauA-negative isolates from mastitic cows and by experimental studies. It is unclear why the pauA gene was found at low frequency in this work. According to the identification scheme used, 78 strains could be

identified as representing S. uberis. Although Zadoks et al. (2005) reported that pauA-negative isolates may represent a novel subtaxon of S. uberis that is genetically closely related to S. parauberis, this could not be confirmed in our Edoxaban study. Finally, gapC, glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate dehydrogenase (GAPDH), was included because in several pathogenic bacteria GAPDH protein has been described as being associated with virulence (Ling et al., 2004; Maeda et al., 2004) due to its ability to bind several host proteins (Pancholi & Fischetti, 1992) or to confer resistance against reactive oxygen species produced by host phagocytic cells (Holzmuller et al., 2006). A recent study in Streptococcus agalactiae describes GAPDH as a virulence-associated immunomodulatory protein (Madureira et al., 2007). Furthermore, Perez-Casal et al. (2004) have suggested

that a GapC product may be a good target for S. uberis vaccine development. In the present study, the gapC gene was found in 79.4% of the strains. In conclusion, we found a large number of virulence patterns associated with intramammary infections. Different virulence patterns were found within the same herd and among herds, demonstrating that strains with different virulence patterns were able to cause mastitis. Despite the large number of strains with different virulence patterns, strains with identical patterns were found. Nevertheless, it is important to consider that S. uberis infections may be likely to be dependent on host factors. Detection of virulence-associated genes in individual S. uberis strains isolated from mastitis showed strains which carried one to 10 virulence genes.

67 × 10−15) (Fig 1a) This C-terminal domain was also found in t

67 × 10−15) (Fig. 1a). This C-terminal domain was also found in the protein of B. cereus AH676 (ZP 0419059), the Bacillus phages TP21-L (Ply21, CAA72267) and bg1 (LysBG1, ABX56141), and the Lactobacillus phage LL-Ku (AAV30211). However, this domain was not fully characterized. Recombinant LysBPS13 was cloned and expressed in E. coli and purified. Sodium dodecyl sulfate polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis (SDS-PAGE) revealed a single band of the purified endolysin (Fig. 1b). As expected, the purified, recombinant LysBPS13 showed lytic activity against B. cereus cells. As little as 5 μg mL−1

click here of LysBPS13 effectively lysed B. cereus cells within 10 min (Fig. 1c). Viable cell counting showed that there was approximately 3-log reduction Osimertinib by 5 μg of LysBPS13 under this reaction condition after 5 min (data not shown). Because blastp analyses showed that LysBPS13 had high similarity to a number of N-acetylmuramyl-l-alanine amidases, the amidase activity of LysBPS13 was evaluated by measuring free N-acetylmuramic acid liberated from peptidoglycan (Hadzija, 1974). When peptidoglycan of B. cereus was treated with LysBPS13 for 30 min, a significant increase in free muramic acid was detected resulting from cleavage of the bond between N-acetylmuramic acid and l-alanine (Fig. 2).

This demonstrates that LysBPS13 has N-acetylmuramyl-l-alanine amidase activity. Because the glycosidase assay revealed that free reducing sugars were not generated from peptidoglycan after LysBPS13 treatment, this enzyme is not a glucosaminidase or a muramidase. Four genera of Gram-positive bacteria, including Bacillus sp., and five genera of Gram-negative bacteria were examined for their susceptibility to LysBPS13 (Fig. 3). LysBPS13 exhibited the strongest

activity against B. cereus ATCC 10876, and it could lyse all of the tested Bacillus species, including pathogenic B. cereus and Bacillus thuringiensis. However, other tested Gram-positive bacteria, such as Listeria monocytogenes, Enterococcus faecalis, ADAM7 Staphylococcus aureus, and Staphylococcus epidermidis, were not lysed by LysBPS13. Among the tested Gram-negative bacteria, LysBPS13 was active against Salmonella, E. coli, Cronobacter sakazakii, and Shigella strains, when these bacteria were treated with EDTA (data not shown). The relative lytic activity against these bacteria was as strong as it was against Gram-positive bacteria (74 ~84%). However, the endolysin did not show lytic activity against these Gram-negative bacteria in the absence of EDTA treatment. To determine the optimal conditions for LysBPS13 function, the exogenous lytic activity of LysBPS13 was examined under different conditions. Lytic activity was highest at pH 9.5 and significantly decreased at pH > 10.5 and < 7.5 (Fig. 4a). The optimal temperature for lytic activity was 42–45 °C (Fig. 4b). The effect of ionic strength on the lytic activity of LysBPS13 was assessed with different concentrations of NaCl (Fig. 4c).

This is in part because medical training does not seem to include

This is in part because medical training does not seem to include relevant exposure to the pharmacists’; role and function, and also prescribing responsibilities this website are part of a packed curriculum. The impact of the Trust’s existing induction programme on prescribing practices and understanding the pharmacist role was considered of

limited use. Although the national competency exam may be reassuring evidence of prescribing competency, it is unlikely it will improve this relationship. We acknowledge the limitations of conducting this study in a single hospital with a relatively small sample size. 1. Dornan T, Ashcroft D, Heathfield H, et al. An in-depth investigation into the causes of prescribing errors by foundation trainees in relation to their medical education: EQUIP study. 2009. Final report to the General Medical Council, University of Manchester: School of Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical medicine and School of Medicine. 2. Ross S et al. Perceived causes of prescribing errors by junior doctors in hospital inpatients: a study from the PROTECT programme. BMJ Qual Saf 2013; 22: 97–102. M. Patel, O. Eradiri Colchester Hospital University NHS Foundation Trust, Colchester, Essex, UK SAM potentially prevents harm from delays

and omissions of medicines. SAM significantly reduced omitted doses (9%, v 13% in the non-SAM group). SAM, by this evidence, is a justified safety tool against omissions. The National Patient Safety Agency has identified Ceritinib in vitro omitted and delayed doses as the second highest cause of medication incidents, resulting in significant harm to hospital patients.1 Our Trust adopted assorted measures to address this, culminating in annual trust-wide omission rates of only 14% and 13% in 2011 and 2012, respectively. SAM is a national medicines management strategy2, encouraging patients, if competent, to administer their own medicines, brought into hospital

or from SAM (pre-labelled) PTK6 packs. SAM is an established practice at our 600-bed Trust. Aim: To assess the contribution of SAM to reducing omitted doses. A prospective audit was conducted by clinical pharmacists and technicians (using a previously piloted tool that identified SAM patients, the medicines omitted and the reasons for omission) on non-SAM patients on their respective wards, over two days. Following the return of completed audit tools, the authors personally collected data, at random, for the corresponding number of SAM patients on each ward. Data were recorded on a Microsoft Excel spreadsheet for statistical analysis. Ethics approval was not required. Audit standards were derived from our Trust SAM policy, and set to 100% for the following: a) SAM patients should be asked if they have taken their medicines; b) omitted doses should have reasons documented. Data were collected from 14 wards that had SAM patients, of the 21 wards at our Trust. The total sample size was 86 patients (43 each of SAM and non-SAM).

(2005), M silvestris prefers acetate over methane as a growth su

(2005), M. silvestris prefers acetate over methane as a growth substrate, possibly due

to the requirement of reducing equivalents for the initial oxidation of methane to methanol, and because acetate concentrations can be quite high in Sphagnum peat bogs where this strain was isolated. As a result it appears that facultative methanotrophic Methylocella strains have an effective regulatory network to control MMO expression. Conversely, the facultative Methylocystis strains H2s and SB2 were found to constitutively express pMMO regardless if these strains were grown on methane or acetate (Belova et al., 2011; Yoon et al., 2011). Expression of pmoA, a key functional gene of the pMMO however, was significantly greater when Methylocystis strain SB2 was grown on methane than on acetate (Yoon et al., 2011). As described above, these strains show weaker growth on acetate. It may be that these strains Sirolimus datasheet use acetate as

a secondary carbon or reducing source that enables the continued expression of MMO in the absence of methane such that these strains can readily utilize methane when it becomes more available (Dunfield, 2007; Belova et al., 2011). These strains, however, were also isolated from bogs where acetate concentrations can be expected to be high (Duddleston et al., 2002), thus, the ability to control MMO expression may have other origins. It is interesting to note that sMMO expression in Methylococcus capsulatus Bath is repressed at high copper concentrations, while pMMO is constitutively expressed but its expression increases with increasing copper concentration (Choi Pirfenidone concentration et al., 2003). The finding that sMMO expression by M. silvestris is repressed in the presence of acetate while pMMO expression is constitutive and positively regulated by the carbon source in Methylocystis strain SB2 suggests that the regulatory pathway of sMMO/pMMO expression used by facultative

and obligate methanotrophs have some similarities. It may be that Methylocella species were originally facultative methylotrophs, later generating the ability to utilize methane as a growth substrate through lateral gene transfer of the genes for the sMMO, and subsequently developed the ability to control MMO expression with respect to carbon source. This is intriguing as Methylocella species are the only known methanotrophs lacking pMMO. By extension, M. aurea may also have been methylotrophic, but through Sunitinib price lateral gene transfer developed the ability to express pMMO. To the best of our knowledge, however, it should be stressed that it has not yet been reported whether M. aurea expresses pMMO when grown on acetate. Although the origin of facultative methanotrophy from methylotrophs in these strains is speculative, it is interesting to note that a facultative methylotroph, Methylobacterium extorquens AM1, when engineered to express the ammonia monooxygenase (AMO) of Paracoccus denitrificans, was able to grow on methane as the sole carbon source (Crossman et al., 1997).

(2005), M silvestris prefers acetate over methane as a growth su

(2005), M. silvestris prefers acetate over methane as a growth substrate, possibly due

to the requirement of reducing equivalents for the initial oxidation of methane to methanol, and because acetate concentrations can be quite high in Sphagnum peat bogs where this strain was isolated. As a result it appears that facultative methanotrophic Methylocella strains have an effective regulatory network to control MMO expression. Conversely, the facultative Methylocystis strains H2s and SB2 were found to constitutively express pMMO regardless if these strains were grown on methane or acetate (Belova et al., 2011; Yoon et al., 2011). Expression of pmoA, a key functional gene of the pMMO however, was significantly greater when Methylocystis strain SB2 was grown on methane than on acetate (Yoon et al., 2011). As described above, these strains show weaker growth on acetate. It may be that these strains check details use acetate as

a secondary carbon or reducing source that enables the continued expression of MMO in the absence of methane such that these strains can readily utilize methane when it becomes more available (Dunfield, 2007; Belova et al., 2011). These strains, however, were also isolated from bogs where acetate concentrations can be expected to be high (Duddleston et al., 2002), thus, the ability to control MMO expression may have other origins. It is interesting to note that sMMO expression in Methylococcus capsulatus Bath is repressed at high copper concentrations, while pMMO is constitutively expressed but its expression increases with increasing copper concentration (Choi INCB018424 chemical structure et al., 2003). The finding that sMMO expression by M. silvestris is repressed in the presence of acetate while pMMO expression is constitutive and positively regulated by the carbon source in Methylocystis strain SB2 suggests that the regulatory pathway of sMMO/pMMO expression used by facultative

and obligate methanotrophs have some similarities. It may be that Methylocella species were originally facultative methylotrophs, later generating the ability to utilize methane as a growth substrate through lateral gene transfer of the genes for the sMMO, and subsequently developed the ability to control MMO expression with respect to carbon source. This is intriguing as Methylocella species are the only known methanotrophs lacking pMMO. By extension, M. aurea may also have been methylotrophic, but through MRIP lateral gene transfer developed the ability to express pMMO. To the best of our knowledge, however, it should be stressed that it has not yet been reported whether M. aurea expresses pMMO when grown on acetate. Although the origin of facultative methanotrophy from methylotrophs in these strains is speculative, it is interesting to note that a facultative methylotroph, Methylobacterium extorquens AM1, when engineered to express the ammonia monooxygenase (AMO) of Paracoccus denitrificans, was able to grow on methane as the sole carbon source (Crossman et al., 1997).

aspx ) Grading: 1A When considering the optimal time to start HA

aspx ). Grading: 1A When considering the optimal time to start HAART, theoretical considerations for avoiding medication during pregnancy, and first trimester in particular, must be considered in light of increasing safety data on first-trimester exposure to ART, risk to maternal health (and fetal exposure to opportunistic

infections), risk of MTCT and time required to achieve an undetectable VL by the time of delivery. Where the mother is at risk of, or has presented with an opportunistic infection, initiation MG-132 cost of HAART should not be delayed. Where treatment is indicated based on CD4 cell count only, deferring treatment to the start of the second trimester is reasonable, particularly if the patient is experiencing nausea and/or vomiting of pregnancy. 5.2.2 Although there is most evidence and experience in pregnancy with zidovudine plus lamivudine, tenofovir plus emtricitabine or abacavir plus lamivudine are acceptable nucleoside backbones. Grading: 2C Most data on the efficacy of HAART in pregnancy are based on a three/four-drug combination, including a zidovudine/lamivudine backbone. Where treatment has been started at, or before, 28 weeks these studies

have demonstrated transmission rates of 1% or less [[1],[18],[21],[22]]. The adult prescribing guidelines now recommend tenofovir/emtricitabine or abacavir/lamivudine as first-line check details therapy based on safety, tolerability and efficacy (BHIVA guidelines for the treatment of HIV-1 positive adults with antiretroviral therapy 2012; www.bhiva.org/PublishedandApproved.aspx).

No studies have compared the safety and efficacy of the three, fixed-dose, dual nucleoside/nucleotide combinations that constitute the backbone of HAART, in pregnancy. Zidovudine-based and zidovudine-sparing regimens are equally safe and efficacious (see Section Tolmetin 5.1: Conceiving on HAART). Based on their antiviral efficacy in non-pregnant adults, transplacental transfer and mode of action, it is unlikely that these newer combinations will be less effective than zidovudine/lamivudine as part of HAART in pregnancy. 5.2.3 In the absence of specific contraindications, it is recommended that the third agent in HAART should be efavirenz or nevirapine (if the CD4 cell count is <250 cells/μL) or a boosted PI. Grading: 1C The choice of third agent should be based on safety, tolerability and efficacy in pregnancy. Based on non-pregnant adults, BHIVA guidelines for the treatment of HIV-1 positive adults with antiretroviral therapy 2012 (www.bhiva.org/PublishedandApproved.aspx) recommended an NNRTI, with efavirenz preferred to nevirapine, or a boosted PI of which lopinavir or atazanavir have been most widely prescribed. For the pregnant woman, there is more experience with nevirapine as efavirenz has until recently been avoided in pregnancy.

g Heun et al, 2004; Fischer et al, 2005) Thus, if tSOS had in

g. Heun et al., 2004; Fischer et al., 2005). Thus, if tSOS had induced synaptic down-scaling mainly in anterior neocortical networks, this should have also improved learning on the finger sequence

tapping task. Slow oscillations support the long-term consolidation of hippocampal memories, presumably by driving the neuronal replay and redistribution of newly encoded hippocampal representations towards neocortical sites of long-term storage (Marshall et al., 2006; Ji & Wilson, 2007; Diekelmann & Born, 2010). The present data suggest that the down-scaling and memory-consolidating actions of slow oscillations in the hippocampus are linked, such that the slow oscillation-induced Roscovitine chemical structure reactivation and redistribution of recently encoded memories results in a freeing of hippocampal capacities for the encoding of new information. It is known that sleep and, particularly, SWS facilitate consolidation of hippocampus-dependent declarative memories. In addition, findings after sleep deprivation have pointed to a ‘forward’ role of sleep in promoting the learning

of new materials during subsequent wakefulness (McDermott et al., 2003; Yoo et al., 2007). The involvement of SWA was indicated by a recent study revealing impaired encoding of declarative memories after suppression of SWA (Van Der Werf et al., 2009). In selleck chemical contrast, our study demonstrates a direct enhancing effect of tSOS-induced SWA on the encoding of declarative memory. In combination, these findings corroborate a causal

link between sleep SWA and the renewal of hippocampal encoding capacities. Because procedural learning did not benefit from enhanced SWA, SWA-dependent renewal of encoding capacities and the putative underlying processes of synaptic down-scaling appear to predominantly impact on hippocampal networks. We thank Horst Koller and Lisa Marshall for technical support. This work was supported by grants from the Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft (SFB 654) and the BMBF (01GQ0973). Abbreviations EEG Electroencephalogram IL interference list REM rapid eye movement RMS root mean square SWA slow wave activity SWS slow wave sleep tSOS transcranial slow oscillation stimulation “
“The to sudden appearance of a novel stimulus initiates a series of responses to orient the body for appropriate actions, including not only shifts of gaze and attention, but also transient pupil dilation. Modulation of pupil dynamics by stimulus properties is less understood, although its effects on other components of orienting have been extensively explored. Microstimulation of the superior colliculus evoked transient pupil dilation, and the initial component of pupil dilation evoked by microstimulation was similar to that elicited by the presentation of salient sensory stimuli, suggesting a coordinated role of the superior colliculus on this behavior, although evidence in humans is yet to be established.