Radiography has been used for diagnostic purposes for over a century [12] and remains the standard for diagnosis of haemophilic arthropathy. Nevertheless, this imaging modality

is only able to diagnose late arthropathic changes, most notably subchondral and bony abnormalities. While the World Federation of Hemophilia Pettersson X-ray scale [13] does not contain an item to represent soft tissue changes, the Arnold-Hilgartner X-ray scale [14] grades soft tissue and osteochondral changes subjectively on a 0–5 grading system. Pathological changes such as synovial hypertrophy, joint effusion, hemosiderin deposits and periarticular oedema can appear as nonspecific soft tissue swelling on radiography. A chief limitation of radiographical scales is that articular cartilage can only be assessed indirectly through evaluation of joint space narrowing. Radiography is typically used for therapeutic planning MG-132 nmr such as arthrodesis and joint replacement, and to follow the progression PKC412 in vivo of arthropathy as a means of monitoring late effects of clinical therapy. Nevertheless, this imaging modality is inadequate for planning modern prevention and for evaluating early treatment efficacy. Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) started to be used as an imaging modality for the assessment of haemophilic arthropathy in the 1980s [15], and since then its use and

applications in this disease have increased considerably. MRI has been shown to more accurately assess a haemophilic joint than radiography [16]. MRI has obvious advantages over radiography, including the increased level MCE公司 of detail of soft tissue and cartilage changes and lack of ionizing radiation, but it is more costly, less accessible, more time consuming and requires sedation

in younger children [17]. Magnetic resonance imaging enables visualization of early arthropathic changes such as hemarthrosis, effusion, synovial hypertrophy, hemosiderin deposition and small focal cartilage defects without joint space narrowing, which cannot be easily delineated by X-ray imaging. Moreover, MRI can provide detailed information about more advanced changes, such as erosions, subchondral cysts and cartilage destruction with joint space narrowing. In addition to T1- and T2-weighted spin-echo MR images, T2*-weighted gradient-echo imaging can be obtained more quickly than true T2-weighted images and offer better spatial resolution. The magnetic susceptibility artefact from gradient-echo imaging is especially useful in evaluating blood degradation products. On gradient-echo imaging, hemosiderin deposits are intensely black, conversely to the adjacent soft tissues that appear as light grey [18]. Magnetic resonance imaging is a powerful tool in the diagnosis, staging and treatment of patients with haemophilic joint disease.