In EPEC-infected cells, ERK1/2 phosphorylation was coupled to nuc

In EPEC-infected cells, ERK1/2 phosphorylation was coupled to nuclear translocation of these proteins. Interestingly,

EPEC virulence factors are necessary for efficient ERK1/2 nuclear translocation, suggesting additional regulation besides phosphorylation. ATM inhibitor Phosphorylation and degradation of IκΒ−α is directly coupled to the activation of the NF-κB signalling pathway, and indeed, degradation of this inhibitor is essential for triggering and maintaining NF-κB activated [47]. We showed that in contrast to infection with a non-pathogenic E. coli, infection with an EPEC atypical-like strain (E22) also activates NF-κB; although at 4 h of infection, E2348/69 induces a stronger IκB-α phosphorylation as well as degradation. E22 activates NF-κB and ERK1/2, although it lacks BFP, which confirms that BFP is not essential for NF-κB signalling [48]. Besides our finding that flagellin is required

to keep NF-κB activated at later times of EPEC infection, we showed that intimin absence and impaired effector translocation also resulted in NF-κB inhibition. These results emphasize that EPEC intimate adherence participates in NF-κB activation. The fact that intimin is a positive factor for activation of NF-κB, but a negative modulator for ERK1/2 signalling indicates that these learn more pathways are being regulated independently during EPEC infection. Although IL-8 contributes to only 50% of neutrophil recruitment by EPEC-infected cells [32], analysis of other cytokines has hardly been studied. Our group has reported that enterocytes from EPEC-infected rabbit showed increased il-1β, il-6, il-8 and tnf-α mRNA expression, and these increments were intimin dependent [33]. Here, we showed that in HT-29 cells, il-1β and il-8 mRNAs are constitutively produced; however, the synthesis of tnf-α mRNA is activated by EPEC infection

only, indicating differential regulation for cytokine production. In addition, il-1β mRNAs increases Astemizole during infection with both intimin and T3SS mutants. Apparently, EspA is a potent negative modulator of tnf-α mRNA production, since its absence resulted in almost the double amount of tnf-α mRNA compared to WT infection. In contrast to subtle differences in cytokine expression, we found marked effects on cytokine secretion. Even when mock-infected cells expressed il-1β and il-8 mRNAs, these cytokines were not secreted; consistently, non-stimulated cells did not express tnf-α mRNA nor secrete the cytokine. Interaction with non-pathogenic E. coli did not result in IL-1β or TNF-α release, although low levels of IL-8 secretion were detected at 4 h of stimulus. In contrast, EPEC infection induced strong secretion of all three cytokines at 2 h of infection, and IL-8 and TNF-α (but not IL-1β) release decreased by one-third at 4 h. Thus, the order of magnitude of cytokines released during EPEC infection was IL-8 > TNF-α > IL-1β.

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