1,4,5 Furthermore, how obesity is estimated can also impact obesity-related findings. Obesity

is most accurately estimated by direct demonstration of an increase in adipose tissue to fat-free mass, such as with CT or MRI imaging.10,15,16 However, direct measurements are not practical and are substantially more expensive than indirect measurements. Thus, indirect estimates of general or TBO, based on the BMI, and of regional or abdominal obesity, based on WC measurements, are often used (see Table 2). Consequently, obesity is often “de facto” defined as excess in relative body weight, which includes skin, organs, and muscle mass, in addition to adipose tissue mass, rather than just excessive NVP-LDE225 ic50 adipose tissue mass.15,16 Several methodological issues have been discussed in evaluating TBO with indirect measures such selleck chemicals as BMI. While most anthropometric measures of TBO perform reasonably well in predicting future diseases, differences may exist in evaluating short-term effects and effects on specific disease entities.1,4,5 First, individuals tend to overestimate their height and underestimate their weight when self-reporting,

including migraineurs.20,21 This can lead to non-differential misclassification in prospectively collected data (ie, TBO is ascertained before disease occurs) but may lead to find more a differential bias in cross-sectional or case–control studies. Second, the implications of the BMI changes with advancing age, as the ratio of adipose tissue to fat-free mass increases with age – even in individuals who maintain the same BMI.16,22 Thus, using the same definition of obesity (based

on a BMI cut-point) in older and younger adults may not be appropriate and may be one explanation for changing associations of obesity on outcomes in the elderly. Finally, BMI does not take into consideration gender-specific differences in adipose tissue distribution.16 Despite their limitations, BMI and WC can be valuable tools to estimate and track gross population changes in obesity in a cost-efficient manner. The World Health Organization criteria and grades for general/TBO and abdominal obesity are noted in Table 2.23,24 In the following section, we review the current research evaluating the relationship between obesity and chronic daily headache or migraine using these indirect estimates of TBO and Ab-O. We will then discuss the central and peripheral pathways involved in the regulation of feeding, where it overlaps with migraine pathophysiology, and then briefly touch on where future research may be headed. Obesity and Chronic Daily Headache.— The first study to identify an association between frequent headache and obesity was a study by Scher and colleagues in 2003 (Table 3).