The number of visible viral lesions was

counted and the diameter and area of lesions were measured 6 days after inoculation. For each treatment, six plants were used and each experiment find more was repeated three times. The production of superoxide anion radical (O2−) and peroxide (H2O2) in the leaves of the 8–10-leaf stage tobacco plants treated with Trichokonins or control solution were examined using the procedure of Fitzgerald et al. (2004). For detection of systemic responses, seedlings were cultured in MS-medium containing 100 nM Trichokonins or control solution for 4 days, after which the top leaf was harvested. For detection of local responses, Trichokonins (100 nM) or 2 μL control solution were placed on the adaxial surface beta-catenin inhibitor of scratched leaves. Leaves were harvested and analyzed immediately. The leaves treated with Trichokonins or control solution were vacuum-infiltrated with nitrotetrazolium blue chloride (NBT) or 3,3-diaminobenzidine (DAB), incubated overnight at 28 °C, fixed and cleared in alcoholic lactophenol solution and examined for the formation of precipitates. Microscopic analysis was performed using an Olympus Stereoscope SZX-9 (Olympus America Inc., Melville, NY)

at × 40 magnification. To test autofluorescence, 2 μL of 100 nM Trichokonins or 2 μL control solution were placed on the adaxial surface of scratched leaves. After 24 h incubation at 25±1 °C, the autofluorescence in the leaves was assessed (Fitzgerald et al., 2004). Microscopic analysis was performed using Olympus BX-51 fluorescent microscope (Olympus America Inc.) at × 200 Amobarbital magnification. The excitation wavelengths were 470–490 nm and the emission wavelengths were 510–550 nm. Each tobacco plant at the 8–10-leaf stage was sprayed with 1 mL of 100 nM Trichokonins or 1 mL control solution. After 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 or 6 days, the leaves of tobacco plants were harvested, ground to a fine powder in liquid

nitrogen and stored at −80 °C until analysis. Phenylalanine Ammonia-Lyase (PAL, E.C.4.3.1.5) activity was determined as described by González-Aguilar et al. (2004). Peroxidases (POD, E.C.1.11.1.7) activity was determined as described by Rathmell & Sequeira (1974). Polyphenol oxidases (PPO, E.C. 1.14.18.1) activity was assayed using Flurkey’s method (Flurkey, 1985). For each treatment, three tobacco plants were used and each experiment was repeated three times. RT-PCR analysis was conducted to determine the expression of selected defense-related genes in Trichokonins-treated tobacco plants. Each tobacco plant at the 8–10-leaf stage was sprayed with 1 mL of 100 nM Trichokonins. Total RNA was extracted from treated tobacco leaves after 0, 1, 2, 4, 6, 9, 12, 24 or 48 h treatment. The quality of extracted RNA was tested by 1.0% agarose electrophoresis. The transcription levels of genes were detected by RT-PCR using a One Step RNA PCR Kit (TaKaRa, Japan). RT-PCR products were loaded on 1.