Therefore, it is speculated that the miRNAs described above play an important role in regulating immune responses and that their expression profiles in xenograft rejection is significantly different from those in allograft rejection; this Pictilisib implies that the mechanism of xenograft rejection is more complex. In this study, our data showed that miR-146a and miR-155 were simultaneously upregulated after

xenotransplantation. In support of this finding, miR-155 was also found upregulated in acute rejection following renal and small bowel transplantation.[9, 12] In the recent years, some studies have shown that miR-155 and miR-146a are the most important two miRNAs critically involved in immune and inflammatory responses. For example, it has been reported that miR-155 and miR-146a are considered as a new class of immunoregulatory factors and

can be abundantly expressed in macrophages.[13, 14] The researchers found that the human mononuclear cell line THP-1 with lipopolysaccharide (LPS) stimulation developed upregulation of three types of miRNA, including miR-146a/b, miR-132, and miR-155.[15, 16] Further studies also demonstrated that miR-146a/b expression can be induced by the TLRs (TLR2, TLR4, and TLR5) ligand for recognition of bacterial components on the cell surface.[16] Moreover, the expression of miR-146 induced by TLR ligand, TNF-α, and IL-1β suggests the dependence of NF-κB activation in regulating the immune response.[15] Selleckchem AZD0530 More importantly, second two important molecules, TRAF6 and IRAK1, have been proved to be the direct targets of miR-146 in the TLR/IL-1β pathway.[17] It suggests that as a negative regulator, miR-146a/b rely mainly on the complementary combination of IRAK1 or TRAF6 in the 3′-UTR region at the post-transcriptional level to inhibit TRAF6 and IRAK1, and thus play a feedback regulation of the immune signal transduction in order to regulate the body’s immune response to inflammatory stimuli.[17] Bhaumik et al.[18] also believed

that it is the IL-1 receptor signal that starts miR-146a/b upregulation and secretion of cytokines. Furthermore, miR-146a/b expression in response to the elevated levels of inflammatory cytokines is a negative feedback loop process; higher miR-146a/b expressions would thereby inhibit IL-6 and IL-8 secretion.[18] Unlike miR-146, miR-155 can be induced by TLR3 ligand with the body of the poly(I:C) and IFN-β/γ.[19] Connell et al.[19] have found that miR-155 gene expression is significantly upregulated with stimulation of IFN-β, IFN-γ, poly-inosinic acid, and LPS and that cytokine stimulation can cause changes of miR-155 level in the immune cells. Tili et al.[20] have also reported that LPS could induce miR-155 upregulation in macrophages. In addition, TNF-α-stimulation changes miR-155 expression level in murine Raw264.