Although all animals used in the present study had normal insulin

Although all animals used in the present study had normal insulin and glucose levels, indicating possibly normal glucose disposal in liver, muscle, and visceral fat, two out of four contained large adipocytes that were insulin resistant and showed no correlation between cell sizes and www.selleckchem.com/products/MLN-2238.html FA uptake (Fig. 7 and Table 1). Recent studies have argued against differential insulin sensitivity of adipocytes from high-fat diet and insulin-resistant mice, since small and large cells had similar insulin sensitivity (53). We hypothesize that, under physiological conditions, insulin-sensitive lipid uptake (the present study) and the antilipolytic action of insulin in adipose tissue (19, 38) are negatively regulated by cell size.

This mechanism may protect adipose tissue from lipid overload and the development of complications associated with the enlargement of adipocyte size, such as local hypoxia, inflammation, elevated basal lipolysis, and systemic insulin resistance (46, 50, 53, 55). Consistent with this hypothesis, adipose tissue insulin receptor knockout (FIRKO) mice are protected against obesity and obesity-related glucose intolerance (6). These effects may be mediated by factors other than the impaired glucose transport in adipocytes, because mice with local inactivation of the GLUT4 transporter in adipose tissue develop muscle and liver insulin resistance and glucose intolerance (1). Similar to FIRKO mice, FATP1-knockout mice are also protected against diet-induced obesity and systemic insulin resistance, and insulin-stimulated FA uptake in adipocytes is completely abolished (52).

These and earlier findings support our study and the hypothesis that, as the lipid storage capacity of adipocytes reaches threshold values, a negative feedback mechanism begins to inhibit insulin-dependent lipogenic processes, restricting further lipid accumulation and increased cell size. This cell size-sensing mechanism is likely to control multiple aspects of adipocyte function, including lipid metabolism and insulin signaling, and is likely activated by changes in biophysical properties or lipid chemistry of fat cells (13, 26, 54). Exte
nadph oxidases are a major source of superoxide production in the vasculature that contributes to endothelial dysfunction and vascular cell proliferation (4, 19).

In nonphagocytic cells, the catalytic moiety of NADPH oxidases is composed of one or more gp91phox (Nox2) homologs, Nox1, -3, -4, or -5, Duox1, or Duox2 (27). These Nox homologs associate with the membrane-bound p22phox subunit to generate reactive oxygen species (ROS). Nox4 is highly expressed in vascular wall cells including Drug_discovery smooth muscle and endothelial cells (47). In contrast to the other Nox homologs, current evidence indicates that Nox4 is constitutively active (1), and increases in Nox4 mRNA levels increase Nox4 activity (45).

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