, 2005, Gorria et al , 2006, Podechard et al , 2011, Sandal et al

, 2005, Gorria et al., 2006, Podechard et al., 2011, Sandal et al., 2004 and Yilmaz et al., 2006). Also see Table 1 for a nonexhaustive list of environmental pollutants which may induce plasma membrane remodeling and cell death. Environmental pollutants have also been shown to affect the expression of major structural components of the plasma membrane like cav-1, which may be involved in cell death/survival signaling (Lim et al., 2007). Ceramide is an evolutionarily conserved second messenger that plays a ubiquitous role in biological processes as diverse as apoptosis, growth arrest, senescence and differentiation (Deng et al., 2008, Dickson

et al., 1997, Jenkins et al., 1997 and Menuz et al., 2009). Ceramide is an N-acylsphingosine

formed of a fatty acid bound to the amino group of the sphingoid base, sphingosine. The hydrolysis of sphingomyelin Ixazomib nmr to ceramide selleck is catalyzed by acid, neutral and alkaline sphingomyelinases that are named according to the optimum pH of their activity. In this review, we focus on acid sphingomyelinase (ASM) whose activity and role in the generation of ceramide have been described in more detail with regard to its implication in cell death. Moreover, ASM can translocate to the plasma membrane; in this context, the generation of ceramide can therefore directly affect plasma membrane composition, whereas neutral sphingomyelinase activity seems to be limited to the cytoplasm (Hannun and Obeid, 2008 and Kolesnick et al., 2000). ASM, can be activated via engagement of the TNF-receptor super-family members—Fas ( Cremesti et al., 2001, Grassme et al., 2001a and Grassme et al., 2001b), CD40 ( Grassme et al., 2002), DR5 ( Dumitru and Gulbins, 2006) and TNFα ( Garcia-Ruiz et al., 2003). Furthermore, a number of groups have demonstrated activation of ASM by various stress stimuli, such as LPS ( Pfeiffer et al., 2001), disruption of integrin signaling ( Erdreich-Epstein et al., 2005), engagement of the platelet-activating factor-receptor ( Goggel et al., 2004), UV-light (UV-A ( Zhang et al., 2001) and UV-C ( Kashkar et al., 2005)),

heat ( Chung et al., 2003), alcohol ( Reichel et al., 2010), oxidative stress ( Sanvicens and RANTES Cotter, 2006), chemotherapeutic agents like cisplatin ( Dimanche-Boitrel et al., 2011), gemcitabine ( Modrak et al., 2004), doxorubicin ( Morita and Tilly, 2000), or ionizing radiation ( Paris et al., 2001) and accumulation of Cu2+ ( Lang et al., 2007). All these stimuli may ultimately lead to ceramide production with further consequences on plasma membrane and cell fate. When cells and tumors are exposed to radiation or chemicals including cytostatics like cisplatin, ASM is activated. The activated ASM then translocates to the membrane surface and hydrolyzes sphingomyelin, which generates sphingosine and ceramide in lipid rafts (Grassme et al., 2001a).

Furthermore,

the cooking process did not significantly af

Furthermore,

the cooking process did not significantly affect the BG content for either cultivation method, and this was reported previously ( Rungapamestry et al., 2006 and Verkerk et al., 2009). Among the analyzed vegetables, watercress behaved differently. No significant difference in benzylglucosinolate content was observed between the organically and conventionally cultivated plants. Among the other analyzed Brassicaceaes, organic collard greens had the highest BG content ( Fig. 2). In conclusion, the organic cultivation practice led to increased concentrations of total glucosinolates and benzylglucosinolate in most of the vegetables. These differences were more apparent when the compounds were isolated and separated using HPLC high resolution liquid chromatography. The acidified methanol extraction of broccoli tissues resulted in significantly higher levels of GLs, which Cabozantinib in vivo differentiated the two modes of cultivation. This difference was supported by the chromatographic analysis of benzylglucosinolate. The tissue extract analysis without the addition of TFA revealed the same concentration profile, but the concentrations of compounds were much lower. Among the evaluated Brassicaceaes, watercress exhibited a different profile for benzylglucosinolate and GL concentration;

significantly higher concentrations of the compounds were IWR-1 cell line observed in conventionally cultivated watercress. These results suggest that watercress cultivated conventionally is Adenosine triphosphate more efficient at sulfur absorption. The highest levels of glucosinolates and benzylglucosinolate were found in Brassica cabbage and broccoli. Furthermore, cooking significantly decreased the GL content of vegetables, but the more accurate HPLC analysis showed that the benzylglucosinolate profile was unaffected. Thus, we believe that these types of plants, if cultivated organically, may become promising sources of secondary metabolites and may reveal gene targets that could confer resistance against phytopathogenic pests and diseases of agro-economic importance; this would contribute to environmental sustainability

without the use of radical agricultural production systems. The authors thank FAPESPand CNPq for supporting this work. We also thank Beatriz Rosana Cordenunsi and Eduardo Purgatto (Laboratory of Food Science Faculty of Pharmaceutical Science-University of São Paulo – SP/Brazil) for assistance with HPLC analyses. “
“A significant proportion of patients undergoing renal replacement therapy (RRT) with hemodialysis (HD) or peritoneal dialysis present a microinflammatory state, which is clinically detected by increased levels of C-reactive protein (CRP) and other inflammatory markers, mainly interleukin 1 and interleukin 6 [1] and [2]. This proinflammatory state is predictive of higher mortality levels and is associated with the malnutrition, inflammation, and atherosclerosis syndrome [3] and other factors, including the dialysis treatment itself [4], [5] and [6].

Pytanie I Pytanie I b mogą się ujawnić w każdym okresie życia Py

Pytanie I Pytanie I b. mogą się ujawnić w każdym okresie życia Pytanie II a.prawdziwe 1 i 5 Pytanie III b.predysponuje do występowania schorzeń alergicznych Pytanie IV e. wszystkie prawdziwe Pytanie V d. prawdziwe b i c “
“Sprostowanie do artykułu, Szczepienia dzieci przedwcześnie urodzonych oraz z małą urodzeniową masą ciała” Ped Pol. 2011; 86(5): 506–516. Jerzy Szczapa, Teresa Jackowska, Leszek Szenborn, Jacek Wysocki, Hanna Czajka, Joanna Stryczyńska-Kazubska, Ryszard Lauterbach, Alicja Chybicka, Anna Dobrzańska, Ewa Helwich strona 508 – punkt 1.1 w 5 akapicie ostatnie zdanie powinno brzmieć: Po szczepieniu przez 48 godzin zaleca się monitorować czynność oddechową, akcję serca i saturację hemoglobiny (SaO2). strona

509 – punkt l.3. Bezpieczeństwo i inne aspekty szczepień , powinien się kończyć zdaniem: W przypadku wątpliwości dotyczących kwalifikacji do szczepień oraz ich realizacji selleck compound u wcześniaków i dzieci z małą urodzeniową masą

ciała, zwłaszcza długotrwale hospitalizowanych, decyzja o ich realizacji powinna być podjęta w Poradniach Konsultacyjnych ds. Szczepień Ochronnych. Ostatnie zdanie tego akapitu zostało wykreślone. strona 514 – punkt 5 powinien brzmieć: Niemowlęta urodzone przedwcześnie wykazują zwiększone this website ryzyko hospitalizacji i zgonu z powodu biegunki rotawirusowej. Szczepienia przeciw rotawirusom można stosować u noworodków urodzonych po 26.–28. tygodnia ciąży zależnie od zastosowanej szczepionki (odpowiednio Rotateq, Rotarix). Przeciwwskazaniem do szczepienia są ciężkie niedobory odporności, skrajne wcześniactwo lub predyspozycja do wgłobienia jelita. Rozsądne jest opóźnienie Docetaxel podania szczepionki rotawirusowej o 42 dni (lub krócej) po podaniu produktu krwiopochodnego, ale tak, aby pierwsza dawka była podana najpóźniej do końca 12. tygodnia życia, a cały schemat szczepienia

został zakończony przed 24. tygodniem życia. Dla obu szczepionek minimalny wiek podania pierwszej dawki to ukończony 6. tydzień życia, a maksymalny 12 tygodni (zgodnie z zaleceniami ekspertów europejskich). Zaleca się, aby szczepienie było wykonane dopiero przy wypisie z oddziału intensywnej opieki noworodka lub neonatologicznego. strona 515 – w punkcie 7 drugie zdanie powinno brzmieć: Szczególnej uwagi w tym zakresie wymagają dzieci urodzone z ekstremalnie małą masą ciała (<1000 g), u których po szczepieniu mogą wystąpić bezdechy, bradykardia z obniżeniem saturacji hemoglobiny, szczególnie po jednoczesnym podaniu szczepionek przeciwko błonicy, tężcowi i pełnokomórkowej szczepionce przeciwkrztuściowej (wP). "
“Międzynarodowe Towarzystwo Badania Bólu określa ból jako nieprzyjemne odczucie emocjonalne i zmysłowe związane z aktualnie występującym lub potencjalnym uszkodzeniem tkanek. Ból jest jednak odczuciem subiektywnym, nie zawsze proporcjonalnym do uszkodzenia tkanek. Wszelkie sytuacje wywołujące lęk czy zmęczenie negatywnie wpływają na sposób i natężenie odczuwania bólu.

To date, some studies have focused on the impacts of crude oil to

To date, some studies have focused on the impacts of crude oil to plankton communities (e.g. Jung et al., 2012 and Varela et al., 2006). Nevertheless, most of these studies have correlative nature and the reported oil spill effects are likely confounded by other environmental variables that are not covered by sampling design. As a consequence, the adverse effect of crude oil cannot often be distinguished (Batten et al., 1998 and Hu et al., 2011). Moreover, most Ganetespib datasheet of the studies have not investigated the oil pollution induced responses of different

life stages of planktonic organisms although the size of organisms is expected to modulate the responses to the intoxication of biota (Arzate-Cárdenas et al., 2011, Brooks et al., 2003 and Kostial et al., 1978). Cladocerans within the genus Daphnia are one of the key organisms in aquatic ecosystems being an essential link between primary production and many important fish species and at the same time exerting a strong control over phytoplankton abundance ( Lampert, 1987). Daphnia magna is commonly found in brackish water ( Arner and Koivisto, 1993) but also inhabits freshwater environments. Therefore, D. magna is acknowledged as an

important test-organism in ecotoxicological DAPT nmr studies both in fresh and brackish waters. Our experiment focused on short-term effects of crude oil on the cladoceran Daphnia magna (Straus 1820) in order to assess the acute effects of crude oil on their survival rate. Furthermore, we explored a potential of different life stages of cladocerans to modulate the effect of intoxication. Previous studies quantified the crude oil effects mainly on the first developmental stages of D. magna (<24 h old in Martinez-Jeronimo

et al., 2005; <48 h old in Ullrich and Millemann, 1983; and <10 days in Ratushnyak et al., 2009) and in one case also mature adults ( Dowden, 1962). The hypotheses of this study are: (1) As an opportunistic species D. magna is not influenced by very low concentrations of crude oil; (2) An increased crude oil concentration decreases the survival rate of D. magna; (3) Different developmental Montelukast Sodium stages of D. magna have different sensitivity to crude oil, whereat the interactive effect of crude oil concentration and cladocerans’ life stage may dominate over the separate effect of crude oil concentration. D. magna specimens were obtained from continuous cultures maintained for several years at the Estonian Marine Institute of the University of Tartu. The experiments manipulating crude oil concentration and size-classes of the cladocerans were performed at the Estonian Marine Institute. The stock culture was maintained in 20 L aquarium and fed an ad libitum diet of Scenedesmus obliquus. The culture was kept in natural light conditions at room temperature (20 ± 2°C). The cladocerans were separated into three size classes: small (1.4 mm, SE = 0.013; 3 days old), medium (2.5 mm, SE = 0.026; 6 days old), and large (3.1 mm, SE = 0.022; 9 days old).

05) Functional gene enrichment analysis using DAVID resulted in

05). Functional gene enrichment analysis using DAVID resulted in 36 individual GO terms with significant enrichment. The non-redundant GO term set was subsequently visualized as tree map using REVIGO and the analysis revealed the superclusters “cell division” and “response to hormone stimulus” as major difference between the R2LC low and high risk groups ( Fig. 5). To assess expression levels of the selected biomarkers caveolin-1, NDKA, RPS6, and Ki-67 on the

transcript selleck screening library level, a comparison between mRNA and protein expression was carried out for 68 tumor samples of the discovery cohort limited to those tumors where mRNA data were available. Correlation analysis revealed that caveolin-1 mRNA and protein level were positively

correlated (p < 0.001) with a Spearman’s rank correlation coefficient of ρ = 0.646. NDKA and Ki-67 also showed a significant positive correlation (p < 0.001) with ρ = 0.682 and ρ = 0.402, respectively. In case of RPS6, no correlation between mRNA and protein expression was observed ( Fig. 6A). The recently published breast cancer data set of Curtis et al. [2] was used to compare gene expression levels of caveolin-1, NDKA, selleck inhibitor and Ki-67 with intrinsic molecular subtypes assigned to those samples using gene expression profiling data. In line with RPPA derived results, mRNA levels of caveolin-1 were significantly higher in luminal A compared with luminal B samples. In addition, NDKA and Ki-67 revealed a higher expression in luminal B samples (Fig. 6B). Breast cancer is nowadays recognized as a heterogeneous

disease with different intrinsic molecular subtypes. The luminal subgroup, which comprises the majority of cases, can be further divided into luminal A and luminal B associated with better or worse prognoses, respectively. This classification is crucial for therapy decisions as patients of the luminal B subtype with high risk of recurrence should be treated with chemo-endocrine these therapy whereas patients being at lower risk could be spared chemotherapy and its adverse side effects. However, a proper definition of low and high risk luminal breast cancer to aid treatment decisions has so far remained a challenge. This study identified a protein biomarker signature consisting of caveolin-1, NDKA, RPS6, and Ki-67 by using RPPA-based tumor profiling which should improve determining the recurrence risk in patients with luminal breast cancer. Biomarker selection was based on a new bioinformatics approach, bootfs, firstly introduced here. Bioinformatics offers numerous methods to solve two-group classification problems in high-throughput data sets. However, no approach clearly outperforms any other algorithm for all quality criteria at once, namely prediction accuracy, feature selection stability, and biological relevance [ [31] and [32]].

RBM is closely associated with an “evaluation culture”, which aim

RBM is closely associated with an “evaluation culture”, which aims at developing

robust governance systems through orientation towards the achievement of identified objectives in a transparent process. It is also strongly related to what Michael Power has identified as ‘the Audit Society’ [7]. RBM – also often known as ‘Objective Based Management’ and ‘performance management’ – has been extensively used as an instrument to reform administration processes in major intergovernmental organizations such as the UN, the OECD and the World Bank. In addition RBM related strategies have been deployed to reform a range of national administrations and regional governments

[3], [8], [9] and [10]. RBM has also been applied within regional forestry management [11] and [12] and national aid programs. “”broad management strategy aimed EX 527 ic50 at achieving important changes in the way government agencies operate, with improving performance (achieving better results) as the central orientation”" [5]. Seen in isolation, this definition, like the similar definition endorsed by the OECD,a neither captures what RBM is, nor what sets it apart from other management strategies. For instance, one may ask if not all management strategies are orientated towards improving performance and achieving better results in some sense. To get a better grip on what RBM is in the context of the UN and the OECD, one must go beyond their definitions and turn to their conceptual frameworks Fluorouracil and practical guidelines for implementing RBM [13] and [14]. In 2004, the UN’s Joint Inspection Unit reviewed experiences from the process of reforming UN agencies based on RBM. This review offered a list of “key RBM techniques“, indicating what RBM is, and how it

may be practised [15]b: • Formulating objectives (results). As this suggests, RBM is a goal-oriented management strategy that systematically uses evaluations to improve performance in a learning process. The standard against which RBM takes on meaning is the command-and-control Cyclooxygenase (COX) chain, as portrayed in Weber’s model of the perfect bureaucracy [16]. In such a system, the organizational apex in principle should know and be responsible for everything that goes on at subordinate levels. The RBM model departs explicitly from that and is built on the principle of coordinating activities in relatively autonomous sub-units, dispensing with detailed central direction and control. Under this principle, the activities of individual sub-units are instead orchestrated towards the common goals through information management and incentive systems.

The plant material was prepared

by chopping the leaves in

The plant material was prepared

by chopping the leaves in a blender with the lowest amount of water possible (approximately 750 ml). All animals were closely monitored for any clinical disturbance. The two sheep dosed for 10 consecutive days were euthanized 24 h after the final dose for pathological study. After they were sacrificed, the sheep were necropsied, and samples from the liver, kidney, lungs, heart, spleen, rumen, omasum, abomasum and intestines were collected, fixed, and stored in 10% buffered formalin for histopathological examination. The paraffin-embedded sections were stained with H&E. All of the rats dosed with 1.0 ml of latex/kg body weight showed severe MLN0128 lethargy beginning 5–8 min after dosing and died within 2 h. No death or clinical signs of toxicity were observed in the rats from control group and dosed with 0, 0.1, 0.3 or 0.6 ml of latex/kg body weight. No macroscopic lesions were found in the necropsies of dead rats. The histological lesions were Selleckchem AZD8055 restricted to rats dosed with 1.0 ml of latex/kg body weight. Microscopic lesions in the hearts appeared as fibers separated by edematous fluid, and the rats exhibited subendocardic hemorrhages, multi-focal coagulation necroses of the muscular fibers evidenced by granular appearance of the sarcoplasm, distinct eosinophilic cytoplasm lacking transverse striations and presenting pyknotic or absent

nuclei (Fig. 1). Infiltration of mononuclear inflammatory

cells was observed between the cardiac fibers. Some muscle fibers presented basophilic granulation and prominent vacuolization of the sarcoplasm (Fig. 2). The livers showed diffuse vacuolization of the hepatocyte cytoplasm, marked sinusoidal congestion and small hemosiderin deposits in the parenchymal hepatocytes. The administration of C. procera leaves to sheep from all groups was responsible for tachycardia and transitory cardiac arrhythmias at auscultation 4 h after dosing. The necroscopic examination of sheep dosed with 60 g/kg per day for 10 days revealed mild ascites, exudates Osimertinib on the trachea, pulmonary edema, mild hemorrhage in the liver, hydropericardium, flaccid heart, ulcers on the omasum and kidneys presenting a pale juxtamedullary cortex. The histological examination of livers and hearts from the sheep revealed similar lesions to those observed in the rats, but the intensity of these lesions varied from mild to moderate. Congestion was observed in the kidneys and lungs. No lesions were found in the spleen, rumen, omasum, abomasum or intestine samples from these sheep. Our results demonstrate that C. procera is a cardiotoxic plant. The lesions promoted by exposure to C. procera latex and fresh leaves were different from those observed in other studies ( Mahmoud et al., 1979a, Mahmoud et al., 1979b, Pahwa and Chatterjee, 1988 and Singhal and Kumar, 2009). The lesions promoted by C.

While Table 1 lists the minimum change that could be associated w

While Table 1 lists the minimum change that could be associated with biologically relevant endpoints, other field studies have reported much higher changes in observed parameters. For example, populations of white sucker (Catostomus commersoni) exposed to bleached kraft mill effluents had GSI, LSI and CF deviations of 30% or more relative to reference fish ( Mower et al., 2011). The power of the test, 1-β, is a third factor influencing the Ku-0059436 supplier number of samples to collect. The convention in environmental sciences is

that power should be at least 0.80 ( Fairweather, 1991), i.e., there should be an 80% chance of detecting a difference between sites. The power of a test can be determined easily from calculations

using similar variables as the minimum sample size (G∗Power 3 can calculate power using a different set of instructions). Obviously, collecting the minimum number of samples will give low power and increase the chances of committing a Type II error (false negative: concluding there is no impact when in fact there was one). In a multi-sample analysis of variance, the power increases rapidly with the number of samples used. Consequently, if there is an opportunity to collect a few more fish at each site, the benefit of each additional fish can be calculated using the power equations. In the present case, the n required Bafilomycin A1 price has been calculated for a power of 0.80 and 0.95, as under many situations it is prudent to reduce the possibility of Type II error where possible. From the perspective of environmental management, a Type II error is far more serious than a Type I error. A Type I error can be seen as a false alarm which could trigger further environmental protective measures – it is only a question of time before the mistake is realized through additional sampling. In contrast, a Type II error leading to a conclusion of ‘no impact’ would result in no remediation measures being implemented, a possible

reduction in monitoring effort, and a continuing environmental deterioration. Thus, due to a lack of statistical power, there would be continued environmental degradation. The fourth factor affecting the minimum required sample size is Monoiodotyrosine the variability of the parameter. Biomarkers can be notoriously variable. For example, the coefficients of variation of all parameters except CF ranged from 12.6% to 127% (Table 2), while the coefficient of variation for CF averaged 6.1%. If the variability within a sampling site is great, a larger sample size will be required to detect a given difference between means (Zar, 1996). Sources of variability for a given biomarker include individual (random) variability, systematic sampling error due to confounding factors, and analytical variability.

Multiple types of markers including SSR, RFLP and SNP were develo

Multiple types of markers including SSR, RFLP and SNP were developed to trace the interesting genes. These markers provide not only efficient tools for genetic studies but also important Etoposide resources for molecular marker-assisted selection. Marker-assisted selection has shifted from linked markers to gene-specific molecular markers for direct tracing of genes of interest. Gene-specific markers developed from wheat Al tolerance gene TaALMT1

and barley Al tolerance gene HvAACT1 co-segregate with the respective tolerance genes and thus should be efficient in MAS [148] and [158]. As shown in Fig. 5, the gene-specific marker HvMATE-21indel can be used to differentiate tolerant and sensitive barley cultivars. Genetic behavior of the tolerance of some plant species has been clarified with some genes responding for Al tolerance being identified. In some genotypes of barley [141], wheat [140], and maize [142], gene expression was reportedly affected by variation in gene sequence. However, regulatory networks affecting gene expression remain poorly understood. The future challenge for studying Al tolerance is the identification of new tolerance mechanisms. For example, it was reported that citrate exudation is the main mechanism and HvAACT1 is the responsible Ku-0059436 cell line gene for Al tolerance in barley. However, as shown in Fig. 6, the gene-specific marker based on the 1 kb InDel does not differentiate Tyrosine-protein kinase BLK tolerant

cultivars from sensitive ones [148]. The function

of the other gene, HvALMT1, for malate acid exudation in barley is still unclear. Due to recent advances in marker development, a stronger impact of marker-assisted selection in breeding is expected. Although MAS is used successfully for Al tolerance, current markers are still some distance from the Al-tolerance genes. Closer markers or gene-specific markers will make selection more efficient. Combinations of different tolerance mechanisms may achieve better tolerance, thus the discovery of new genes remains a priority for improved Al tolerance in crop plants. This study was supported by the Australian Grains Research and Development Corporation. “
“Many important crops including rice (Oryza sativa L.), wheat (Triticum aestivum L.), soybean (Glycine max L.), and potato (Solanum tuberosum L.) are classified as C3 plants, in which the first product of the Calvin cycle is 3-phosphoglycerate (3-PGA), whose production is catalyzed by ribulose 1,5-bisphosphate carboxylase/oxygenase (Rubisco). However, competition of O2 with CO2 at the catalytic site of Rubisco results in a loss of up to 50% of carbon fixation via photorespiration [1]. Compared with C3 plants, C4 crops such as maize (Zea mays L.) and sorghum [Sorghum bicolor (L.) Moench] have evolved a C4-metabolism system that concentrates CO2 in the vicinity of Rubisco and thereby substantially increases the ratio of RuBP carboxylation to oxygenation.

The authors applied the methodology of Synolakis, 1987 to assess

The authors applied the methodology of Synolakis, 1987 to assess the influence of wave form on the analytical expressions for runup of different types of non-breaking N-waves. They found that the runup of a leading depressed N-wave is greater than the runup of an equivalent (i.e., same

amplitude) leading elevation N-wave or solitary wave (runup law (3)). However, there are still significant Selleck BIBW2992 and fundamental gaps in the understanding of the behaviour of trough-led waves, due to the difficulty in generating these waves experimentally, and the scarcity of available field observations. Another wave type often assumed to represent tsunami is a bore, a common form of long wave, approaching the shoreline. The amplitude of long waves increases as they move into shallower waters until the point of wave breaking.

With this approach the bore Natural Product Library supplier height is the main parameter to be related to runup. Baldock and Holmes (1999) analytically derived a runup equation for bores in their study of swash oscillations, by using laws of motion for a body with constant deceleration and the results of previous studies. These authors also took into account the type of energy transfer around the shoreline, and derived equation (5), which describes the unsaturated runup (i.e., runup corresponding to the first swash) as a function of the flow velocity, or the bore height (HbHb). The coefficient C(12

of the efficiency of converting kinetic to potential energy during runup. A small number of studies provide additional information regarding other factors that may influence runup. Borthwick et al. (2006) showed numerically that for a/h>0.015a/h>0.015, the runup decreases as the friction coefficient increases, showing that bed friction can influence runup. For a frictionless case, Borthwick et al. (2006) found there was no change in runup regime Bay 11-7085 at a/h=0.015a/h=0.015. In this case (3) would apply to all waves. Moreover, their results indicated for a given value of the friction coefficient, there is an upper limit to the runup irrespective of the beach slope. Synolakis (1986) suggested that breaking waves run up higher than non-breaking waves, and by generating bores of different lengths, highlighted a dependence between the displacement and duration of plate motion and the maximum runup, which would suggest that the wavelength influences runup. However, for bores with duration greater than 10.8 s, all runups tend to a common value, which Synolakis (1986) suggests is explained by the significant reflected wave generated at the beach. Finally, Li and Raichlen (2003) measured runup experimentally and applied an energy balance to obtain equation (6).